On China

China's Historical Cycle of Collapse and Unity

China views itself not as a typical nation-state, but as a permanent force of nature. While other civilizations celebrate their founding moments, Chinese legend suggests the empire always existed, merely requiring restoration during times of chaos. The Yellow Emperor and Confucius are celebrated not as creators of something new, but as restorers of a lost golden age. This sense of timelessness is reinforced by a writing system that has remained readable for thousands of years, allowing modern citizens to feel a direct connection to ancient court intrigues and battles.

History in this part of the world follows a rhythmic cycle: "The empire, long divided, must unite; long united, must divide." Every period of collapse was seen as a temporary deviation from the natural order of unity. This vast territory, ranging from Siberian forests to tropical jungles, fostered a belief that China was "All Under Heaven." It was a world unto itself, largely self-sufficient and physically isolated by the Himalayas and vast deserts. In the early 1400s, China possessed a naval fleet that dwarfed anything in Europe. Admiral Zheng He sailed massive "treasure ships" to Africa and the Middle East, yet he sought no colonies, only ritual acknowledgment of China’s greatness. When the fleet was later dismantled, China voluntarily turned away from the sea, creating a "splendid isolation" where elites viewed their culture not just as a great civilization, but as civilization itself.

The glue holding this society together was Confucianism. Unlike Western religions, it offered no roadmap to the afterlife or a story of cosmic creation. Instead, it focused on social harmony, filial piety, and the "Way" of a just society. The Emperor served as the "Son of Heaven," a bridge between the divine and the human. If he ruled virtuously, the universe remained in balance; if he failed, natural disasters and rebellions signaled that he had lost the "Mandate of Heaven."

This worldview created a unique approach to international relations. While Europe developed a system of equal sovereign states, China saw only a hierarchy with itself at the center. Foreigners were not equals but "barbarians" to be managed. Strategy was rarely about total conquest. Instead, it was about "using barbarians to check barbarians," employing bribes, trade, and cultural influence to keep neighbors divided and compliant. This mindset is best reflected in the game of wei qi. Unlike chess, which seeks a decisive checkmate, wei qi is about strategic encirclement and gaining a relative advantage. This philosophy aligns with Sun Tzu’s The Art of War, which teaches that the highest form of victory is defeating an enemy without ever fighting. By focusing on psychological dominance and the "potential energy" of a situation, a leader waits for the perfect moment to strike where the opponent is weakest.

By the time the modern age arrived, China was the wealthiest and most populous empire on Earth, producing nearly a third of the world's wealth. Its long habit of superiority left it oblivious to the technological shifts in the West. It stood as a singular power, convinced of its universal relevance, even as the tides of history prepared to challenge its isolation.